Over the next two weeks, you will investigate animal form and function. This week, you begin with a dissection of a squid, which is a member of the Class Cephalopoda within the Phylum Mollusca. This lab should introduce you to several of the major tissue types and organ systems found within animals. Next week, you will turn your attention to a dissection of a mammal (a fetal pig), which should give you a very good idea of what you look like on the inside.  Because this is such a busy week, with a test and one assignment due on Friday, no summary is required for this lab.

The following account of cephalopod anatomy was modified from The Invertebrates: Form and Function, A Laboratory Guide, by I. W. Sherman and V. G. Sherman (Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, NY, 1976). You should read Chapter 32 and pp. 609-612 in Chapter 33 before coming to lab this week. It would also be useful to look through Chapter 40, which covers basic tissue types found in animals. Diagrams of the squid will be on reserve in Schurz library. You should bring a copy with you to lab.

Like the plants we studied over the past three weeks, animals have characteristic tissues, which are groups of cells that have a common structure and function. There are four main tissue types in animals: epithelial, nervous, muscle, and connective. In this lab, we will view the following prepared slides of animal tissues:

1. Epithelial tissue - Squamous epithelium
2. Nervous tissue - Motor neurons
3. Muscle tissue
     a. Smooth muscle
     b. Striated muscle
4. Connective tissue
     a. Cartilage
     b. Adipose tissue (fat)
     c. Loose connective tissue
     d. Blood

All of these representative types of tissues are described in Chapter 40 of your textbook.
 

     Molluscs are soft-bodied animals, more familiarly known as clams, octopods, and snails. They are bilaterally symmetrical, with well-developed digestive, circulatory, excretory, and respiratory systems. A calcareous shell may (e.g., snails, clams) or may not (e.g., slugs, octopods) be present.
     Molluscs are closely related to annelids (segmented worms) in their mode of development and type of larva, but they are distinguished from the latter by a lack of segmentation. In addition, the extensive coelom, so important in annelid locomotion, is reduced in size in most molluscs; it is usually restricted to the area surrounding the heart and to spaces within the gonads and kidneys. Most molluscs are slow-moving, creeping animals, but in some instances the organization of the body regions has been modified so that swift movements are possible.
     In an evolutionary sense, molluscs are extremely plastic, and they demonstrate highly successful adaptations to a variety of habitats. The considerable adaptive radiation exhibited by members of this phylum is reflected in the varied functional morphology of the group. In numbers of species, they are among the most abundant of all organisms. Although primarily marine, representatives are found in fresh water and on land.
     All molluscs can theoretically be derived from a generalized body plan consisting of three main body regions: head-foot, visceral mass, and mantle (Figure 33.16, p. 609, in your textbook). The head-foot region is the locomotory and sensory portion of the body, upon which rides the visceral mass containing the excretory, digestive, and circulatory organs. Whereas the head-foot region is operated by muscles, the visceral mass works by means of cilia and mucus. The third component of the body, the mantle, forms a fleshy cover over the visceral mass and a skirt around the foot. It secretes the shell, which lies on its outer surface, contains the gills (ctenidia), and itself functions in respiration. The mantle alone might be considered the hallmark of the molluscs, for the plasticity of the mantle in both form and function has contributed greatly to the success of the group. Each of the major classes of molluscs reflects the elaboration or suppression of one or more of the three body regions (Table 33.3, p. 610).
 

General Organization of the Body
     As the name indicates (kephalo = head; pod = foot), the head-foot is dominant in cephalopods. These are swift-moving carnivores, and their bodies are quite streamlined. The shell is either not well developed or entirely absent. When present, the shell is internal, except in the most ancient lineages (e.g., Nautilus).
     Examine a preserved specimen of the squid Loligo). Note that there is no external shell and that the major part of the body is enclosed in a soft, fleshy mantle and is sharply demarcated from the rest of the squid body by the collar. Opposite the pointed end of the animal (the apex), you will find the head-foot region. The eight arms and two longer tentacles are derivatives of the foot and surround the mouth. Turn back the arms and tentacles to reveal a muscular membrane running from their bases to the mouth. This membrane is composed of an outer lobed buccal membrane with suckers on its inner surface and an inner peristomial membrane. Notice the horny beak protruding from the mouth. Locate the large, well-developed eyes and the fold of tissue behind the eye, called the olfactory crest.
     Orientation at this point may cause problems, so align your specimen in such a way that the following descriptions will not be confusing. Place the animal so the apex is furthest from you and the arms are closest to you. Turn the animal so that the siphon (the tubular projections between the collar and the head-foot region) is facing you. It too is a derivative of the foot. The apex, which bears the visceral mass, is dorsal and the arms are ventral. The surface facing you is posterior. The eyes are on the left and right sides of the body, and the head structures have moved to a position that is dorsal to the foot; that is, the anteroposterior axis is shortened. What axis of the body has become elongated? As you work, try to relate all the structures you see to the generalized mollusc (Figure 33.16).
 

Mantle Cavity, Shell, and Respiration
     The mantle is a fleshy cover that incompletely surrounds most of the organs of the body. The space between the fleshy mantle lobes is called the mantle cavity. The openings of the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems are all found within the mantle cavity. The mantle also functions in secretion of the shell. However, the most distinctive function of the mantle cavity is to provide a space for housing the delicate ctenidia (gills), thus protecting them from the hazards of the environment and permitting an oriented flow of water across them.
     Primitive cephalopods show a chambered shell (e.g., Nautilus), but in others the shell is internal or absent. In Loligo, the chitinous endoskeletal element is known as the pen. You will be able to feel the stiff pen running the full length of your animal under the dorsal anterior surface. Of what advantage might a reduced or internal shell be to cephalopods?
     The most obvious organs of the mantle are the paired ciliated gills or ctenidia. Strictly speaking, a ctenidium is a respiratory structure that includes ciliated filaments. The ciliary tracts on the filaments draw respiratory water currents into the mantle cavity on either side. The two currents filter through the ctenidial filaments, meet dorsally, and pass backward as an exhalent stream out of the mantle cavity. Gland cells on the filaments secrete mucus, and particles brought into the mantle cavity with the respiratory current are filtered out. Tracts of cilia on the ctenidia direct rejected material toward the midline.
     Cephalopods are active predators, streamlined for quick motion; they therefore require a streamlining of their respiratory current. The walls of the mantle cavity are highly muscularized, and movement of water within the cavity is no longer dependent on ciliary action. With the ventral side of the squid facing toward you, observe the construction of the mantle collar and its relationship to the siphon. The siphon is derived from the foot. In life, the mantle cavity expands by muscular action, water enters, and the collar locks tightly against the head, leaving the siphon as the only exit pathway from the mantle cavity. The siphon is well equipped with muscles and can be pointed for making directed jet-propulsive movements.
     Open the mantle cavity by making an incision that runs the entire length of the posterior surface from siphon to apex. Dissect with care so as not to disturb the internal organs. Notice that the mantle consists of a thick layer of circular muscles surrounded by integument, with dorsolateral muscularized extensions, the fins. Turn the cut mantle edges laterally and pin them out to expose the internal organs clearly. Note that the tip of the siphon has a valve that regulates the outflow of water from the mantle cavity. The inner side of the mantle has cartilaginous ridges that keep the inhalent currents separate from the exhalent. There are two ctenidia oriented so that the inhalent streams pass over each, then converge and exit as a single exhalent stream.
     Examine a piece of a ctenidium under the dissecting scope. Prepare a wet-mount slide with a smaller piece and view it with the compound microscope. Is it ciliated?
 

Excretion
     The paired excretory organs of the molluscs are closely associated with the heart. There are two kinds of molluscan excretory organs: brownish pericardial glands (difficult to see in most specimens) and renal nephridia or kidneys. In the kidney, nitrogenous wastes (urea, amines, and predominantly, ammonia) are extracted from the blood. Inorganic substances may be taken back into the blood, and the composition of the excreta is determined by the extent of renal secretion and reabsorption. Excretory material is passed to the mantle cavity and voided in the excurrent respiratory system.
     The cephalopod kidney is derived from two separate renal organs that have fused. The kidney is closely associated with the branchial hearts, which are swellings of the blood vessels at the base of the ctenidia. The contractions of the branchial hearts force fluid through the walls of the blood vessels into the kidney.
     If necessary, in your opened Loligo, remove the thin skin covering the organs of the visceral mass. Locate the rectum ending in the anus at the base of the siphon. Lateral and dorsal to the rectum are two papillae, which are the openings of the kidney ducts. Trace the rectum dorsally toward the apex until it disappears medially beneath the paired kidneys. If your specimen is a female, the rectum will disappear beneath the large white nidamental glands. Remove the left gland to reveal the mottled orange-brown accessory nidamental gland and the left kidney. Notice the swollen branchial heart at the base of the left ctenidium and explore its close attachment to the kidney.
 

Blood and Circulation
     Molluscs do not have a spacious coelom, and in all except the cephalopods, the body space is composed of large venous sinuses, which act as pooling places for the blood. For this reason, the body space is more accurately described as a hemocoel; the true coelom is restricted to the pericardium (a membranous sac enclosing the heart) and the cavity of the gonad. Blood that has collected in the sinuses from various parts of the body passes first through the kidney and respiratory organ and then via the efferent branchial artery to the heart. The main propulsive force for distribution of blood in the connective tissue spaces gives the blood an additional function to that of distribution; namely, it acts as a component of the hydrostatic skeleton. The foot of clams, for example, is protruded by the influx of blood and is withdrawn by contraction of longitudinal muscles.
     The active swimming and carnivorous habits of the cephalopods require a more efficient circulatory system than in a clam - one that is closed and contains capillaries. There is no hemocoel and the blood does not play a role in locomotion. The body cavity, which is more spacious in most cephalopods than in any other molluscan class, is a true coelom. Otherwise, the circulatory system of cephalopods is similar to that of other molluscs except for some additional components. Interpolated between the body and the ctenidia are a pair of accessory pumping devices known as branchial hearts.
     Examine your specimen, which has been double-injected with colored latex, and trace the pathway of circulation. The blood flows from the systemic heart to the body via the anterior and posterior aorta, which give rise to various arteries supplying the head, mantle, and visceral organs. Blood drains from the body regions in the veins and pools in large anterior and posterior vena cavae, passes to the ctenidia via the branchial hearts, and then returns to the systemic heart.
 

Feeding and Digestion
     Molluscs demonstrate all possible feeding habits (herbivorous, carnivorous, and omnivorous), and the structure and function of the gut are related to the type of food eaten. Cephalopods are voracious carnivores and do not depend upon ciliary currents for the capture of food. They do, however, retain some of the microphagous structural components of the gut, such as the radula (a tooth-bearing, food-gathering structure unique to molluscs), but this organ is of secondary importance.
     The mouth is surrounded by eight pointed arms and two longer tentacles. Observe the structure of these arms and tentacles and the arrangement of the suckers upon them. Study the organization of the suckers under the dissecting microscope. In life, the prey is grabbed by a rapid extension of the two tentacles and brought toward the mouth, where it is held firmly in place by the eight arms and killed by an injection of poison. Remove the siphon, and, by median incision, cut into the head, separating the eyes and exposing the buccal mass. This is a muscular organ that bears two horny beaks, which are used for ripping prey. Pry open the beak and observe the radula. Posterior to the buccal mass are a pair of salivary glands, which pour their poisonous secretions into the buccal cavity. Trace the thin-walled esophagus (surrounded by the liver) from the buccal mass to the thick-walled stomach. The stomach emerges from the liver tissue to form the caecum, which extends to the tip of the visceral mass. The liver consists of paired digestive glands fused in the midline; it is a triangular organ with the base located ventrally near the collar. A U-shaped pancreas lies anterior to the stomach; its duct unites with that of the liver before passing into the caecum. The intestine runs forward from the stomach, shows a diverticulum (the ink sac), and terminates in the rectum.
     In your notebook, write out answers to the following questions: What is the function of the ink sac? What is the length of the gut relative to the body length? How might this relationship differ between herbivores and carnivores? What is the significance of the difference? How does the location of the anus in each of your dissected specimens guarantee that the mantle cavity is not fouled with feces?
 

Nervous and Sensory Systems
     The structure of the nervous system in molluscs ranges from a simple "ladder" type to a system in which there is extreme fusion of ganglia, forming a true brain. The ultimate in invertebrate cephalization is seen in the cephalopods. Evolutionary fusion of ganglia followed by extensive differentiation makes it difficult to compare the ganglia with those of other molluscs. In your specimen, the easiest part of the nervous system to find are the large stellate ganglia, located on the inner dorsal surface of the mantle at the level of the tip of the ctenidia. The stellate ganglia are the motor centers of the mantle and give rise to its giant fiber system, which is favorite material for neurophysiologists.

Locomotion
     From the complex structure of the cephalopod nervous system, one would expect these organisms to be capable of a variety of neuromuscular activities. They are particularly well demonstrated by the feeding and swimming movements of the squid. In Loligo, which is a rapid swimmer, the giant fiber system of the mantle is effective in producing quick-firing, rapid muscular contractions.

Vision
     The eyes of cephalopods are the best developed among all molluscs, and perhaps among all invertebrates. Carefully remove an eye from your specimen by cutting the eye muscles and optic nerve. The outermost covering is the false cornea, which is underlain by the true cornea. Remove the corneas and identify the spherical lens, the colored iris and choroid coat, and the innermost lining, the retina. How does the organization of the eye of the squid compare with that of the human?
 

Reproduction
     In cephalopods, the sexes are always separate; the gonad is at the apex of the body and its ducts open directly into the coelom. Fertilization is internal, and there may be complicated courtship behavior and parental care of the young. You should be sure to view the reproductive organs of both a male and a female squid.
     If your specimen is a female, identify the single large ovary at the apex of the visceral mass. Identify the large, white nidamental glands, together with the orange-speckled accessory nidamental glands beneath their ventral ends. The oviduct is a transparent tube, possibly packed with eggs, leading by a small ciliated funnel from the vicinity of the ovary. The oviduct loops ventrally, dorsally, and ventrally again as the glandular, thicker walled oviducal gland. It terminates in a flared opening. The large, yolky eggs are shed from the ovary into the coelomic cavity and are picked up by the ciliated funnel of the oviduct. As the eggs pass along the oviduct, they receive an elastic membrane from the nidamental glands and a gelatinous coat from the oviducal glands.
     If your specimen is a male, remove the left gill and branchial heart. The single large, white testis is located at the apex of the visceral mass. It opens directly to the coelom by a slit at its anterior end. Near the opening lies the ciliated opening to the vas deferens, an opaque, white, coiled tube leading ventrally between the spermatophoric sac on the right and the thick-walled spermatophoric organ on the left, and opening to the exterior by the penis to the left of the rectum. The penis is not a muscular intromittent organ and is no more than the end of the vas deferens.
     Remove a small portion of the spermatophoric sac and view it under the dissecting microscope. To get a more detailed look, remove a single spermatophore and view it on a slide under a compound microscope. Be sure not to squash it under a cover slip - use three cover slips, making a bridge under which you can view the spermatophore. When you have identified all the various parts, make a thin cross-section through a spermatophore, and view it under high power (40X lens).
     When the spermatophores are released, the cap breaks open, and the ejaculatory organ turns inside out and pulls the sperm mass and cement gland with it; the cement gland fastens the sperm securely wherever it happens to land. This is usually a glandular area located on the buccal membrane of the female. During copulation, the male squid exhibits courtship behavior that culminates in the deposition of spermatophores on the female. In male squid, the fourth arm to the left is specially modified to pick packets of spermatophores from the opening of the vas deferens and transfer them to the female. Following courtship and fertilization, the female holds the gelatinous egg mass in her arms an attaches it to a suitable spot, usually rocks below the low tide mark. Young squid hatch within 2-3 weeks.